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英语学术论文写作范文学术英语写作范文17篇

Sample 1

Native American Influences on Modern U.S. Culture

When the first Europeans came to the North American continent, they encountered the completely new cultures of the Native American. Peoples of North America, Native Americans, who had highly developed cultures in many respects, must have been as curious about them. As always happens when two or more cultures come into contact, there was a cultural exchange. Native Americans adopted some of the Europeans? ways, and the Europeans adopted some of their w

ays. As a result, Native Americans have made many valuable contributions to modern U.S. culture, particularly in the areas of language, art, food, and government.

First of all, native Americans left a permanent mark on the English language. The early English-speaking settlers borrowed from several different Native American languages

words for places in this new land. All across the country are cities, towns, rivers, and states with native American names. For example, the states of Delaware, Iowa, Illinois, and Alabama are named after Native American tribes, as are the cities of Chicago, Miami, and Spokane. In addition to place names, English adopted from various Native American languages the words for animals and plants found in the Americas, Chipmunk, moose, raccoon, skunk, tobacco, and squash are just a few examples.

Although the vocabulary of English is the area that shows the most Native American

influence, it is not the only area of U.S. culture that has been shaped by contact with Native

Americans. Art if another area of important Native American contributions. Wool rugs woven by women of the Navajo Tribe in Arizona and New Mexico are highly valued works of art in the United States. Native American jewelry made from silver and turquoise is also very popular and very expensive. Especially in the western and southwestern regions of the United States, native crafts such as pottery, leather products, and beadwork can be found in many homes. Indeed, native art and handicrafts are a treasured

part of U.S. culture.

In addition to language and art, agriculture is another area in which Native Americans had a great and lasting influence on the peoples who arrived here from Europe, Africa, and Asia. Being skilled farmers, the Native Americans of North America taught the new comers many things about farming techniques and crops. Every U.S. schoolchild has heard the story of how Native Americans taught the first settlers to place a dead fish in a planting hole to provide fertilizer for the growing plant. Furthermore, they taught the settlers irrigation methods and crop rotation. Many of the foods people in the United States eat today were introduced to the Europeans by Native Americans. For example, corn and chocolate were unknown in Europe. Now they are staples in the U.S. diet.

Finally, it may surprise some people to learn that citizens of the United States are also indebted to the native people for our form of government. The Iroquois, who were an extremely large tribe with many branches called “nations”,

had developed a highly sophisticated system of government to settle disputes that arose between the various branches. Five of the nations had joined together in a confederation

called “The League of the Iroquois.” Under the league, each

nation was autonomous in running its own internal affairs, but the nations acted as a unit when dealing with outsiders. The league kept the Iroquois from fighting among themselves and was also valuable in diplomatic relations with other tribes. When the 13 colonies were considering what kind of government to establish after they had won their independence from Britain,

someone suggested that they use a system similar to that of the League of the Iroquois. Under this system, each colony or future state would be autonomous in managing its own affairs but would join forces with the other states to deal with matters that concerned them all. This is exactly what

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from of government of the United States can be traced directly back to a Native American model.

In conclusion, we can easily see from these few examples the extent of Native American influence on our language, our art forms, out eating habits, and our government. The people of the United States are deeply indebted to Native

4 Americans for their contributions to U.S. Culture.

Exercise: Complete the outline by filling in the missing parts.

Native American Influences on Modern U.S. Culture

I. Introduction

Thesis statement:

___________________________________________________________ II. Body

A. Native Americans left a permanent mark on the English language.

1. Names of places-cities, towns, rivers, and states

a. States: Delaware, Iowa, Illinois, Alabama b. Cities: Chicago, Miami, Spokane

2. Names of animals and plants

a. Animals: chipmunk, moose, raccoon, skunk

b. Plants: tobacco, squash

_____________________________________________________________

1. Navajo rugs

2. Silver and turquoise jewelry

______________________________________________________________ a. Pottery

_____________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

1. Farming techniques

_________________________________________________

b. ________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

b. ________________________________________________

D. _

1. Iroquois-large tribe with many branches (“nations”) Needed to settle disputes among various branches

2. Five nations formed League of Iroquois

_________________________________________________

b. Acted together when dealing with outsiders

3. After independence, 13 colonies adopted similar system.

a. Each colony (future state) was autonomous in managing own affairs.

______________________________________________________ III. Conclusion

___________________________________________________________

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At the Movies

You Are Where You Sit: Seating Choice Can Tell a Lot about a Person!

1 When he goes to the movies, Ravel Centeno likes to sit on the aisle and stretch his feet out-a fact that by itself speaks volumes about his personality, according to a new study. The study, commissioned by the British movie theater company Odeon, examined how theater seating habits reflect personality. And as the summer movie season reaches its zenith, the research says you are where you sit. Psychologist Donna Dawson pided moviegoers into four different personality types based on their seating preferences and cited examples of movie characters who fit those types.

2 Those who sit on the aisle, like Centeno, are “detached obs

ervers”-people who like to have their own space, who are observers and tend to be quieter. “That?s funny, because I?m a writer,” Centeno said Thursday as he waited to see AI. at

the Cineplex

Odeon at Universal CityWalk. “So that?s what I do (observe people).” One celluloid example of a detached observer, said Dawson, is Jack Nicholson?s Melvin Udall character in As Good as It Gets.

3 Other personality types, according to Dawson:

4 The “front row film fanatic”: Extroverted, assertive, and

competitive, these are people who like to see movies with others, not on their own. An example from the movies might be Mike Meyers?s Austin Powers or Julia Roberts?s Erin

Brockovich.

5 The”middle-of-the-roaders”: These are the people who

like to sit in the middle, fittingly. They are people who are flexible and try to get along with others, such as Gwyneth Paltrow?s Emma. Gloria and Tom Candelaria of Redlands say that seems to fit them. “We like the middle because it?s not too far back and not too close to the front,” Gloria Candelaria said as she scanned the marquee at CityWalk. Tom Candelaria said the “middle-of-the-roader” label seems

to fit them because “we?re easygoing.”

6 The “invisible rebels”: Those who sit far in the back are people who are rebellious and like excitement but don?t necessary seek the limelight, the study said. A typical example is Clint

Eastwood?s Man with No Name and Sigourney Weaver?s Lt. Ripley in the Alien films. “The back row is,where things happen; it?s an exciting area of danger and lots of passionate smooching,” Dawson said in the Odeon report. “It tends to attract people who are rebellious.”

7 For some people, though, sometimes a chair is just a chair. “I don?t knowwherever there?s an empty seat,” said filmgoer Chris Marshall of Lake Hollywood, when asked where he likes to sit. “That works for me.”

Questions About the Organization

1. What kind of introduction does this newspaper article have?

a. It is a funnel introduction-it begins with a general statement and narrows down to the thesis statement. b. It begins with an example and ends with the thesis statement.

c. It explains the reasons for the study and ends with the thesis statement.

2. What kind of conclusion does it have?

a. It summarizes the four main personality types.

b. It gives the writer?s opinion on the study.

c. It gives an example that contrasts with the main points.

3. What words in the thesis statement indicate that the article uses logical pision of ideas as a

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About the Support

4. What two kinds of supporting details are used in this article?

_________ and _________

5. The psychologist who made the study used one kind of support, and the writer of the article reporting the results of the study used another kind. Which person used which kind? a. The psychologist used _

b. The writer used _

About the Content

6. How do we know if the psychologist is correct? Does the article mention the methods she used in her study to match seating preference and personality type, or does it report only the results?

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Culture Shock

Moving to a new country can be an exciting, even exhilarating experience. In a new

environment, you somehow feel more alive: seeing new

sights, eating new food, hearing the

foreign sounds of a new language, and feeling a different climate against your skin stimulate your senses as never before. Soon, however, this sensory bombardment becomes sensory overload. Suddenly, new experiences seem stressful rather than stimulating, and delight turns into

discomfort. This is the phenomenon known as culture shock. Culture shock is more than jet lag or homesickness, and it affects nearly everyone who enters a new

culture-tourists, business travelers, diplomats, and students alike. Although not everyone experiences culture shock in exactly the same way, many experts agree that it has roughly five stages.

In the first stage, you are excited by your new environment. You experience some simple difficulties such as trying to use the telephone or public transportation, but you consider these small challenges that you can quickly overcome. Your feelings about the new culture are positive, so you are eager to make contact with people and to try new foods.

Sooner or later, differences in behavior and customs become more noticeable to you. This is the second stage of culture shock. Because you do not know the social customs

of the new culture, you may find it difficult to make friends. For instance, you do not understand how to make “small talk,” so it is hard to carry on a casual, get-acquainted

conversation. One day in the school

cafeteria, you overhear a conversation. You understand all the words, but you do not understand the meaning. Why is everyone laughing? Are they laughing at you or at some joke that you did not understand? Also, you aren?t always sure how to act while shopping. Is this store self-service, or should you wait for a clerk to assist you? If you buy a sweater in the wrong size, can you exchange it? These are not minor challenges; they are major frustrations.

In the third stage, you no longer have positive feelings about the new culture. You feel that you have made a mistake in coming here. Making friends hasn?t been easy, so you begin to feel lonely and isolated. Now you want to be with familiar people and eat familiar food. You begin to spend most of your free time with students from your home country, and you eat in restaurants that serve your native food. In fact, food becomes an obsession, and you spend a lot of time planning, shopping for, and cooking food from home.

You know that you are in the fourth stage of culture shock

when you have negative feelings about almost everything. In this stage, you actively reject the new culture. You become critical, suspicious, and irritable. You believe that people are unfriendly, that your landlord is trying to cheat you, that your teachers do not like you, and that the food is making you sick. In fact, you may actually develop stomachaches, headaches, sleeplessness, lethargy, or other physical symptoms.

Finally, you reach the fifth stage. As your language skills improve, you begin to have some

success in meeting people and in negotiating situations. You are able to exchange the sweater that was too small, and you can successfully chat about the weather with a stranger on the bus. Your self-confidence grows. After realizing that you cannot change your surroundings, you begin to accept the differences and tolerate them. For instance, the food will never be as tasty as the food in your home country, but you are now able to eat and sometimes even enjoy many dishes. You may not like the way some people in your host country dress or behave in public, but you do not regard their clothes and behavior as wrong-just different.

Concluding Paragraph A

百度搜索“就爱阅读”,专业资料,生活学习,尽在就爱阅读网92to.com,您的在线图书馆To sum up, culture shock is a very

real phenomenon that has been studied for more than 30 years by psychologists and anthropologist$. Its five phases are (1) positive feelings toward the new culture, (2) awareness of small differences, (3) growing discomfort and need for contact with home culture, (4) negative feelings, and (5) acceptance and adjustment. Symptoms may vary, and not all people experience all five phases. In the end, however, people who suffer culture shock are stronger from having overcome the difficulties and frustrations of adapting to life in a new land. Concluding Paragraph B In conclusion, nearly everyone moving to a new country feels some degree of culture shock. Symptoms may vary, and not all people experience all five stages. Newcomers with a strong support group may feel at home immediately in the new culture, while others may take months to feel comfortable. Staying in touch with friends and family, keeping a positive attitude, and, above all, learning the language as soon as possible are ways to overcome the 15

difficulties and frustrations of adapting to life in a new land.

Exercise:

1. Which concluding paragraph best suits the passage and why?

2. Which concluding paragraph is a summary of the subtopics? Which one paraphrases the thesis

statement?

3. Which concluding paragraph gives suggestions? Which one makes a prediction?

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Sample 4: Cause and Effect

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Sample 5: Cause and Effect

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Sample 6: Comparison

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CLASSROOM LEARNING AND INTERNETBASED

TEACHING

Since the late 1990s internet-based teaching (also known as e-education) has emerged as a potential rival to traditional classroom learning. It normally involves having access to a secure site on the internet where a graded series of lessons are available, and which have assignments sent and returned by email. Although on-line courses are now offered by many institutions, it is by no means clear that they offer real advantages compared to classroom education. Little research has been done so far on their effectiveness, but this

essay sets out to examine the arguments on both sides and attempts to draw conclusions from them.

Two main advantages of internet use in education are put forward. Firstly, it is seen as more economical, in that once a course is prepared, it can be used by large numbers of students. The savings made by not having to employ so many teachers should be reflected in cheaper course fees. The second benefit is convenience; instead of having to attend classes at fixed times and places, students are free to study when they choose and progress at their own pace. Furthermore, by studying from home there is no need to travel to the college or university, saving both time and money. A student living in a small town in China, for example, can now study a course at an American college without the worry of travelling, accommodation or homesickness.

Despite the considerations mentioned above, classroom learning shows no signs of being replaced by e-learning. It seems that face-to-face contact with a teacher is still widely regarded as the best way for students to make progress, despite the expense and inconvenience involved. Not only the personal contact with a teacher, but also the support and 18

encouragement gained from being part of a class may be one reason for this. Membership of a group may also create a useful spirit of competition, which stimulates learning.

Given the increasing pressure on university places in many countries, internet-based teaching is often seen as a convenient development. However, e-learning eliminates personal contact and travel from education, which are possibly the aspects many students value. Sitting at home working on a computer may be economical, but clearly cannot replace the social experience of attending courses. However, there are many people who are unable, either through work or family commitments, or due to lack of funds, to go to classes, and who would clearly find internet learning beneficial. On-line courses can also be used to support taught courses, for instance by providing access to extra materials. In many ways these kinds of courses are similar to ,universities of the air?, such as Britain?s Open

University, which have developed distance learning so successfully in the last 40 years.

Faced by growing demand for university places, more institutions are likely to develop on-line courses, but the apparent benefits of e-learning may be less than are 19

generally believed. Students seem to value the personal contact of the classroom highly, despite its cost and

inconvenience. There may be a role for internet-based courses to supplement teacher-taught ones, and certainly for people with other commitments they will be the only practical option. There is an urgent need for research on the effectiveness of this type of learning, which should help maximise its advantages in the future.

(Approximately 550 words)

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Sample 8: Argument

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Now complete the outline of the model essay:

Separating the Sexes, Just for the Tough Years

I. Introduction (explanation of the issue)

Thesis statement:

_______________________________________

II. Body

A. Opposing argument 1

Opponents of single-sex education claim that test scores show that there is no advantage to all-girl or all-boy classes.

Rebuttal to argument 1

1. Research is inconclusive-show opposite results

2. Other results that cannot be calculated

a. Girls _____________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

b. Boys

____________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

B. Opposing argument 2____________________________________________________________

Rebuttal to argument 2

_________________________________________________________

a. Settling squabbles with siblings

b. Negotiating with opposite-sex parent

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_________________________________________________________

Rebuttal to argument 3

___________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

b. Teachers call on boys more often

III.Conclusion

1. Same-sex classes provide a better learning environment

Reasons

a. Boys and girls

___________________________________________________22

_________

__________________________________________________________________________ b.

Girl_____________________________________________________________________ c. Boys

____________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________

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A major change that has occurred in the Western family is an increased incidence in porce. Whereas in the past, porce was a relatively rare occurrence, in recent times it has become quite commonplace. This change is borne out clearly in census figures. For example thirty years ago in Australia, only one marriage in ten ended in porce;

nowadays the figure is more than one in three (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1996: p.45). A consequence of this change has been a substantial increase in the number of single parent families and the attendant problems that this brings (Kilmartin, 1997).

An important issue for sociologists, and indeed for all of society, is why these changes in marital patterns have occurred. In this essay I will seek to critically examine a number of sociological explanations for the „porce phenomenon? and also consider the social policy implications that each explanation carries with it. It will be argued that the best explanations are to be found within a broad socio-economic framework.

One type of explanation for rising porce has focused on changes in laws relating to marriage. For example, Bilton, Bonnett and Jones (1987) argue that increased rates of porce do not

necessarily indicate that families are now more unstable. It is possible, they claim, that there has always been a degree of marital instability. They suggest that changes in the law have been

significant, because they have provided unhappily married

couples with „access to a legal solution to pre-existent

marital problems? (p.301). Bilton et al. therefore believe that changes in porce rates can be best explained in terms of changes in the legal system. The problem with this type of explanation however, is that it does not consider why these laws have changed in the first place. It could be argued that reforms to family law, as well as the increased rate of porce that has accompanied them, are the product of more fundamental changes in society.

Another type of explanation is one that focuses precisely on these broad societal changes. For example, Nicky Hart (cited in Haralambos, 1995) argues that increases in porce and marital breakdown are the result of economic changes that have affected the family. One example of these changes is the raised material aspirations of families, which Hart suggests has put pressure on both spouses to become wage earners. Women as a result have been forced to become both homemakers and economic providers. According to Hart, the contradiction of these two roles has lead to conflict and this is the main cause of marital breakdown. It would appear that Hart?s explanation cannot account for all cases of porce - for example, marital breakdown is liable to occur

in families where only the husband is working. Nevertheless, her approach, which is to relate changes in family relations to broader social forces, would seem to be more probing than one that looks only at legislative change.

The two explanations described above have very different implications for social policy,

especially in relation to how the problem of increasing marital instability might be dealt with. Bilton et al. (1995) offer a legal explanation and hence would see the solutions also being

determined in this domain. If rises in porce are thought to be the consequence of liberal porce laws, the obvious way to stem this rise is to make them less obtainable. This approach, one

imagines, would lead to a reduction in porce statistics; however, it cannot really be held up as a genuine solution to the problems of marital stress and breakdown in society. Indeed it would seem to be a solution directed more at symptoms than addressing fundamental causes. Furthermore, the

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working in the area of family welfare suggests that restricting a couple?s access to porce would in some cases serve only to exacerbate existing marital problems (Johnson, 1981). In those cases where violence is involved, the consequences could be tragic. Apart from all this, returning to more restrictive porce laws seems to be a solution little favoured by Australians. (Harrison, 1990).

Hart (cited in Haralambos, 1995), writing from a Marxist-feminist position, traces marital conflict to changes in the capitalist economic system and their resultant effect on the roles of men and women. It is difficult to know however, how such an analysis might be translated into practical social policies. This is because the Hart program would appear to require in the first place a radical restructuring of the economic system. Whilst this may be desirable for some, it is not achievable in the present political climate. Hart is right however, to suggest that much marital conflict can be linked in some way to the economic circumstances of families. This is borne out in many statistical surveys which show consistently that rates of porce are higher among socially disadvantaged families

(McDonald, 1993). This situation suggests then that social policies need to be geared to providing support and security for these types of families. It is little cause for

optimism however, that in recent years governments of all persuasions have shown an increasing reluctance to fund social welfare programs of this kind.

It is difficult to offer a comprehensive explanation for the growing trend of marital breakdown; and it is even more difficult to find solutions that might ameliorate the problems created by it. Clearly though, as I have argued in this essay, the most useful answers are to be found not within a narrow legal framework, but within a broader socio-economic one.

Finally, it is worth pointing out that, whilst we may appear to be living in a time of increased family instability, research suggests that historically, instability may have been the norm rather than the exception. As Bell and Zajdow (1997) point out, in the past, single parent and step families were more common than is assumed - although the disruptive influence then was not porce, but the premature death of one or both parents. This situation suggests that in studying the modern family, one needs to employ a historical perspective, including the possibility of looking to the past in

searching for ways of dealing with problems in the present.

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Discuss why assignment essays are common assessment tasks in undergraduate tertiary coursework, and evaluate the effectiveness of assignments as an avenue for learning. (Word limit 500 words - 10% leeway) Please note that the APA referencing style is used in this sample essay.

Assignment essays are developed from set questions that give students a period of time to

research a topic and produce their answer with references to their sources of information. While there are some disadvantages with using assignment essays as an assessment tool, there are sound educational purposes underpinning this practice. This essay examines the reasons why assignment essays are beneficial for student learning and considers some of the problems with this method of assessment.

Assignment essay tasks are set to assist students to develop mastery of their study subject. Firstly, assignment tasks enhance understandings about subject matter. Yang and Baker (2005) reason that “to master your learning materials

and extend your understandings, you need to write about the meanings you gain from your research” (p. 1). Secondly, research (Jinx, 2004; Zapper, 2006) clearly demonstrates that students learn the writing conventions of a subject area while they are researching, reading and writing in their discipline. This activity helps them to “crack the code” of the discipline (Bloggs, 2003, p. 44). Thus, students are learning subject

matter and how to write in that disciplinary area by researching and writing assignment essays. Using

assignment essays for assessment supports student learning better than the traditional examination system. It is considered that course-work assignment essays can lessen the extreme stress experienced by some students over „sudden-death? end of semester examinations:

If we insist that all students write about everything they

have learned in their study courses at the same time and in

the same place (e.g. in examinations), we are not giving all

of our students equal opportunities. Some students are not

daunted by the exam experience while others suffer „exam nerves? and perform at the lowest level of their capabilities.

(Wonderland University, 2006, p. 4)

Additionally, Jones et al. (2004, pp. 36-37) propose that assignment essays can be used to assess student learning mid-course and so provide them with helpful feedback before they are

subjected to the exam experience. Exams only provide students with a mark rather than specific feedback on their progress. Therefore, setting assignment essays for a substantial part of student assessment is a much fairer approach than one-off examination testing. As an assessment tool, assignment essays have some disadvantages for lecturers and students. It has been found that assignment essays consume a great deal of staff time and money to mark and student time to prepare (Sankey & Liger, 2005, p. 192). A consequence of this is that

feedback to students is frequently delayed, and this is much less useful to students than rapid feedback (p. 294). It is partly because of these disadvantages of time and expense that other assessments such as multiple-choice tests and short answer questions have an enduring place in the tertiary learning environment.

To conclude, it seems that assignment essays continue to have a prominent role in tertiary education as an assessment

tool. This is mainly because they are very effective in developing knowledge and writing skills for subject areas. Also, assignment essays can be less stressful than

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students to show their understanding of content in less pressured circumstances. On the other hand, the time consuming nature of writing and marking essays points to some disadvantages that also need to be considered. The weight of evidence, however, supports the writing of assignment essays for student assessment because this approach has such positive and proven effects for improved student learning.

References

Bloggs, J. (2003). Linking teaching, learning and succeeding in higher education. London: Bookworld.

Jinx, J.M. (2004). Student essay writing. Journal of Research in University Education, 9(2), 114-125.

Jones, J., Smith, P.L., Brown, K., Zong J., Thompson, K. & Fung, P.A. (2004). Helpline: Essays and the university student. Tokyo: Courtyard Printers.

Sankey, J.M. & Liger, T.U. (2003). Learning to write essays [CD-ROM]. Sydney: Wonderland University.

Taylor, G. (1989). The student?s writing guide for the arts

and social sciences. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wonderland University (2006). Attributes of a university graduate. Retrieved from

doi:10.1098/063-112

Yang, S. & Baker, O.E. (2005). Essay writing and the tertiary student. Melbourne: Diamond Press. Zapper, Y. (2006). Learning essay-writing. In F.T. Fax & Y. Phoney (Eds.), Learning Experiences at University (pp. 55-70). Calcutta: Academic Scholar Press.

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92to.com,您的在线图书馆Sample 11

The Cost of Tourism in the Cook Islands In theory, tourism brings substantial economic benefits to a country. But who gains the wealth generated? In recent times tour operators have brought large numbers of tourists to the Cook Islands to enjoy their beauty and the traditional life style. Local people meet this demand in the form of

profit generation. Can it be argued that tourism in the Cook Islands has brought wealth and well-being for the majority of the local population? Tourism is also promoted as creating jobs and fostering social relations, and in particular a better understanding between nations. However, there is, according to one researcher, “a growing body of empirical evidence that the so-called „benefits? of tourism are often greatly outweighed by the substantial long-term social and environmental costs incurred” (Mercer, 1994, p. 127). This essay will argue that in the case of the Cook Islands, tourism?s economic and social benefits are unfortunately unrealised ideals and that instead it has put stresses and strains on both the country?s economic wellbeing and its

social values. (This is the introductory paragraph, giving the background to the essay and specifying its focus.)

Turning first to the alleged economic benefits of tourism, we can see that in the case of the Cook Islands, there is a variety of sources of income from tourist receipts. According to a 1991 visitor survey (Tourism Council of the South Pacific, 1991), after beach activities and natural scenery (62%), visitors to the Cook Islands are looking for entertainment and folklore and culture experiences (27%).

Tourists contribute to the local economy by spending money on travel to and around the country, as well as on accommodation, food, entertainment and souvenirs. Results from this same survey, for example, revealed that in the survey period (October 1991 to February 1992) close to 90% of tourists surveyed stayed in hotels or similar accommodation. Also, close to 70% of total tourist expenditure was on accommodation, restaurants and bars, with a further 16% on transport, tours and entertainment (Tourism Council of the South Pacific, 1991). Tourists are thus helping to create jobs which are based on making them feel welcome and at the same time they put cash into the economy directly by paying for services. (This paragraph outlines some of the claimed economic benefits.)

There are down sides however. The Cook Islands does not have the capacity to own and maintain businesses such as large airline companies or tourist hotels. They are owned by other countries such as New Zealand or multinational conglomerates. The cost of travel and accommodation, which constitutes a large part of a tourist?s expenditure, goes directly to the foreign-owned airlines and hotels. These outside interests draw the bulk of the profit they create out

of the country. Little of it reaches the local economy. According to Milne (1987), overseas operators receive approximately 60% of all tourist receipts, while local Europeans receive 23%, with the remaining 17% flowing to Cook Islands owned enterprises. It is likely that these disproportionate shares of control of the tourist dollar will have spin off effects on the social fabric. As Milne claims “the crucial factor in determining the level of negative social

impacts is the degree to which local participation in the ownership and control of the industry is undermined” (Milne, 1987, p. 120). Tourism in the Cook Islands in the late eighties appears to have provided overwhelming economic benefit to foreigners rather than the local population. This may well have impacted negatively on the social fabric. It is beyond the scope of the essay to examine this, but Milne?s claim seems a reasonable one. (This and the following

paragraph critique the point of view

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paragraph and disclose the negative effects of tourism on the country?s economic wellbeing. This paragraph considers the 36

issues of ownership and control of the industry. )

The creation of jobs is often claimed to be one of the positive side effects of tourism. However, according Milne (1987, p.134) “Despite totalling 95% of the population, Cook Island Maoris only fill 53% of the managerial or supervisory positions in the industry. Europeans on the other hand, fill 47% of these positions, despite comprising less than 5% of the country?s population”. Again, there is clearly an imbalance between local and non-local participation in the economic benefits of tourism in terms of who does what job. This mirrors the imbalance in ownership of operator resources described in the previous paragraph. Another unintended negative effect is that tourism employment is seen as easy money when compared to traditional island occupations like cropping. It attracts labour away from cropping, another important source of income for the economy. So Cook Islanders appear mainly to receive economic benefit via mostly non-managerial wages and at the same time the labour force is drawn away from other important areas of economic activity. (This paragraph

continues to critique the point of view that tourism brings 37

substantial benefits to the Cook Islands economy. It considers the claim that the creation of jobs is one of the positive side effects of tourism in the Cook Islands. )

Turning to the supposed social benefits of tourism, we can also see some discrepancies beneath the surface ideals. To take advantage of any other money the tourists are prepared to spend, Cook Islanders court tourists with their own enterprises. But tourists have their own set of images about the culture before they even set foot in the country, and when they arrive they seek to affirm these images. Tourists usually only want to see what is pleasant and enjoyable whether or not they are experiencing truly authentic features of a society. This explains for example the popularity of the „traditional? Cook Island tapa cloths and lava lavas which are imported from a factory in New Zealand. The cost in cultural terms is borne out further by another reality lying behind the ideal. Tourism is claimed to draw different cultures together. However, what often results from this cultural mixing of first and third world populations is cultural envy (Milne, 1987, p. 127). With increased exposure to western lifestyles local people start to

38 emulate aspects of western culture such as consumerism and the consumption of alcohol, with the expected negative results. All of these less than ideal realities beneath a positive surface indicate that as far as the Cook Islands are concerned, for the relatively low financial return that tourism offers to the local population, the social costs are too high. (This paragraph is about the claimed social benefits of tourism. )

It is worth considering what economic benefits might be found in less socially damaging and economically more effective forms of the industry. Tuara (1990) for example contains a detailed discussion of an appropriate model for sustainable tourism development based on the experience of Barbados, and in a recent discussion of the role of ecotourism in the Pacific, Hall concludes: “to neglect the social dimension of development and people?s relationship to their environment is in opposition to the principles of sustainable development” (1994, p. 154). He cites a study of

ecotourism in the Solomon Islands (Rudkin, 1994), where “development proposals served only to reinforce the power and wealth of „big men? at the expense of the wider indigenous community”. The Cook Islands could perhaps

avoid the reinforcement of similar existing power relations if tourist planning was more under the control of those affected by it. Control of the Cook Islands tourism industry by local people, training of local people and advice from those outsiders working

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could mean that tourism brings many more benefits and fewer costs. (This is the concluding paragraph, providing a summary of the argument and recommendations. )

1145 words References

Hall, C.M. (1994). Ecotourism in Australia, New Zealand and the South Pacific: Appropriate tourism or a new form of ecological imperialism? In E. Carter & G.Lowman (Eds.), Ecotourism: A sustainable option? (pp. 137-157). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.

Mercer, D. (1994). Native peoples and tourism: Conflict and compromise. In W.Theobold (Ed.), Global tourism: The next decade (pp.124-145). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Milne, S. (1987). The Cook Islands? tourist industry:

Ownership and planning. Pacific Viewpoint, 28 (2), 119-138.

Rudkin, B. (1994). Ecotourism: Passage to sustainable development? Unpublished master?s thesis, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand.

Tourism Council of the South Pacific. (1991). Cook Islands Visitor Survey 1991: Survey Report No. 13. Suva: Tourism Council of the South Pacific.

Tuara, P.N. (1990). Towards sustainable tourism development in the Cook Islands: Lessons in experience from Barbados. Unpublished master?s thesis, Dalhousie

University, Halifax, Canada.

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92to.com,您的在线图书馆Sample 12

EDUCATION IS THE MOST IMPORTANT FACTOR IN

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

1. Education must be considered on several different levels, so that today most Western countries are concerned with provision from nursery to higher education, while developing countries attempt to deliver basic education (e.g. reading and writing) to their people. ,National

development? will be defined in this essay as the

development of a country?s economy, since this is most

commonly seen as the function of education provided by the state. For example, many European countries began providing primary education for all citizens in the late nineteenth century, in the phase of early industrialisation.

2. This paper attempts to evaluate the importance of these varying levels of educational provision in encouraging economic growth, compared to other factors such as national culture, natural

resources and government. The role of education in fostering development will be examined first, and then other factors affecting growth will be considered.

3. At its simplest, education sets out to teach literacy and numeracy. People who can read and count are capable of being trained for many roles in the industrial or service sectors, as well as learning by themselves. Even in the simplest economies, dependent on agriculture, the education of women has been shown to lead to dramatic improvements in family welfare. In more

developed economies further skills are required, such as languages, engineering and computing. Good education does

not merely teach people how to function passively, but provides them with the skills to ask questions and therefore make improvements. At university level, education is closely involved in research which leads to technical and social advances.

4. Yet education does not operate in a vacuum: cultural, religious, legal and other factors all influence the rate of economic growth. Soviet Russia, for example, had an advanced educational system, but many graduates were under-employed due to the restrictions of the political system. Similar situations exist in many countries today because of political restraints on the economy which prevent fast enough expansion to create sufficient jobs. Clearly, development requires efficient and honest government to encourage a dynamic economy.

5. A strong work ethic, as found in the USA or Japan, also aids growth. In such societies children are brought up to believe that both the inpidual and society will benefit from hard work. Natural resources such as oil are another consideration. Brunei, for instance, previously a poor country reliant on fishing, today has one of the highest per capita GDPs in the world. A clear and effective legal system

also encourages development.

6. It is difficult to think of a situation where education has been the principal agent in fostering growth. For example, in the world?s first industrial revolution, which occurred in

eighteenth-century Britain, the majority of people were still illiterate (some pioneer industrialists themselves could not read or write). It seems that the availability of capital through the banking system, and a secure political and legal environment were more crucial in this case. 7. However, despite these considerations, education clearly has an important part to play in

developing the skills and abilities of the people. Ultimately, they are the most important resource a country possesses, and their education is a priority for all successful states.

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Model Cause, Effect, and Solution Research Essay

What are some causes and effects of illiteracy?

IF we can send a people to the moon, should not every person on earth have the ability

and opportunity to read and write well? Knowing how to read and write, or being literate, is a prerequisite for succeeding in today?s technologically advanced and quickly

evolving global

society. Every person needs to acquire literacy in his/her early development, because reading and writing are useful skills in so many daily activities, from reading newspapers, medicine bottles, and product warning labels, to writing letters, emails, and reports. Being literate also develops the mind, imagination, and critical thinking skills. However, many people in the world are not literate, and many do not even have the opportunity to become literate in their lifetime. In fact, UNESCO Institute for Statistics, the international organization that collects data for the United Nations, estimated in 2004 that 800 million people (nearly 1 in 6 people in the world) are illiterate, and more than 65% of that number are women. This number is increasing as well, due to the high birth rates in illiterate societies. Therefore, in order to understand more about this significant

phenomenon, a few of the causes, effects, and solutions to illiteracy will be discussed.

One of the major causes of illiteracy is poverty and the subsequent lack of access to reading and writing materials. Realistically, students who would have gone on to continue their education past the 5th year sometimes quit school in order to work on the farm or in a factory in order to assist with the family income. Also if a family is poor, food and the basic necessities of life take precedence before books can be purchased. Related to this issue is Maslow?s theory on the

hierarchy of needs. Maslow, a well-known psychologist, wrote that people deprived of basic needs, such as shelter, food, clothes, and basic safety, are less likely to develop themselves with higher education (University of Tennessee Website, 2004). In other words, economic instability can affect the ability of a population to become literate.

The effects of illiteracy often negatively impact a nation?s

ability to develop its human resources. Countries with a high illiteracy rate are more likely to be disadvantaged in the global economy. If a populace is not literate, it cannot be as involved in high tech jobs. New careers in the

sciences, mathematics, and technology are primarily established in countries that have literate populations.

Another major effect of illiteracy is not having access to basic information that is distributed via books, newspapers, or the Internet. This type of information could include practical advice to increase the quality of life, such as how to participate in microfinance projects. In short, illiteracy does not encourage positive social change, personal growth, or the preservation and development of language and culture.

How can illiteracy be overcome? One of the best solutions to solving the stubborn problem of literacy is to teach parents to read, so that they can in turn teach their children. In a document

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Education of Colorado, Iowa, Nebraska, and others, Judith Schickendanz explains that “Children learn about written language in a … socially mediated way…. Children also learn about the functions of written language as they observe and help parents make lists, write letter to family members or friends, or read menus in a restaurant”

(1999). If the adult women are educated first, each generation will be able to read and write, since mothers are the first educators of children. The women will teach their children, both male and female, who will in turn teach their children. Once more people in a society are literate, that society tends to develop further capacities, and further value literacy.

In conclusion, illiteracy has many interrelated causes and effects. In many countries literacy rates are increasing, notably in India, due to literacy campaigns (EFA, 2000). Economic development of many of these countries is also increasing in a similar fashion. Thus, one could easily argue that the increase in literacy is directly correlated with positive economic growth. In the past, education was not required, but in this day, universal education is becoming a necessity. Therefore, innovative solutions should be implemented to take advantage of this unique time in history.

Works Cited

The EFA 2000 Assessment: Country Reports (2000). India. Retrieved August 25, 2006 from the UNESCO Web site:

Schickedanz, J. (1999). Myths About Literacy Development. Retrieved August 24, 2006 from the National Association of Early Childhood Specialist in the State Departments of Education Web site: Simons, J., Irwin D. and Drinnien, B. (1987) Psychology - The Search for Understanding New York: West Publishing Company. Retrieved August 25, 2006 from the Faculty Development at the Honolulu Community College Web

site:

UNESCO Education. (2005) Literacy and skills development. Retrieved August 24, 2006 from the EFA Global Monitoring Report Web site:

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92to.com,您的在线图书馆Sample 14: Argument

Model Persuasive / Argumentative Essay Recycling Renewed

According to Chief Seattle, an Indian who lived in the western part of North America in the

1800s, “Man does not weave this web of life. He is merely a

strand of it. Whatever he does to the web, he does to himself.” This statement illustrates the importance of taking care of the earth, not merely to avoid global warming, but to preserve the natural balance of the planet. Some of the most pressing problems are the destruction of natural habitats, the depletion of natural resources, and the polluting of rivers, lakes, and oceans. One idea now debated is whether or not the government should require communities to participate in recycling programs. Although some argue that inpidual communities are free to choose if they take part, many people believe that due to the interconnectedness of the planet, governments have an obligation to encourage and require communities to participate in the recycling effort.

Some overly optimistic people contend that natural resources are for the most part replaceable, such as trees, or too abundant to worry about, such as oil. However, the fact is that currently trees are being cut down faster than it is possible to repopulate the forests. Furthermore, water is a

finite resource that is polluted from oil refining and the creation of many modern products, for example plastic. In fact water shortages and water pollution are both problems affecting most

every country around the world. Certainly, without clean, fresh water, life would not be possible. Some people assert that it is too difficult or complicated for citizens to recycle. However,

logistically recycling requires only a separate trash bin for tossing in plastic, glass, aluminum and steel products. Newspaper, cardboard and office paper can be collected in another box. Once set up, recycling is as easy as throwing away materials in one trash can. The communities set up

collection to coincide with the trash pick up days, so it can be as easy as when not recycling. Once people realize the importance and ease of recycling, they get involved and change their trash habits. In fact, community members feel a sense of pride when contributing to the betterment of the world.

A few naysayers have argued that products will be recycled naturally by the earth over time. Even though

recycling does happen naturally over time, some products never do, such as batteries. Also, with the tremendous rise in global population and use of natural resources, humans have to effectively combat these increases by recycling goods. In addition, recycling saves not only the resources that go into creating products but also landfill space when the products are tossed out. Some of the chemicals and materials that are put into the ocean are poisoning the fish, for

example. Since fish are part of the human food chain, people are further poisoning themselves by eating polluted food.

Recycling is only a part of the solution, but it is an easy and important first step to fight pollution. Recycling aids in maintaining limited resources and is not too difficult to implement. People are

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deceleration of the global warming process. Overall, recycling supports the earth and supports life. Chief Seattle said the world is interconnected, so taking care of the earth is like

taking care of our home.

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92to.com,您的在线图书馆Sample 15: Cause and Effect

Background: Wolves are predators. They kill cattle, sheep, chickens, and other animals that are farmers? and ranchers? source of income. In 1914, the United States Congress provided money to eradicate wolves. The government paid hunters to help ranchers protect their livestock by killing the wolves. Sixty years later, wolves had disappeared from the western United States. Then in 1973, Congress enacted the Endangered Species Act, and the Wolf Recovery Program was started to reintroduce wolves in some areas. Currently about 160 wolves have been reintroduced to central Idaho and Yellowstone National Park. Farmers and ranchers are strongly opposed to this program and have filed lawsuits to stop it. The author of the following essay favors the program. As you read, look for the reasons she gives for supporting the wolves? return. The model essay at the beginning of this chapter focused on causes, but this essay focuses on effects: What were the effects of the wolves? absence? What are the effects of the wolves? return?

Welcoming Back the Top Dog

1 In our homes, on our beds, and deep within our hearts lie creatures for whom the wild is more than a

whisper-domesticated versions of animals long reviled by humankind.

Forebears of our beloved dogs and cats, wolves and mountain lions have shared a fate far removed from that of their tamer cousins. Feared for their intelligence and physical prowess, wolves and mountain lions were nearly eradicated. It is only recently that we have begun to understand the vital role these predators play in keeping nature in balance. Only recently have we stopped persecuting and started appreciating the wonders of these wild beings.

2 Just in the nick of time. Luckily, when given political protection from trigger-happy humans and habitat with sufficient prey, wolves and mountain lions thrive and their populations quickly revive. While mountain lions have always eked out an existence in California, wolves were exterminated decades ago. But now, the potential exists for wolves to move naturally into the far reaches of northern California and Oregon from the northern Rockies.

3 Wolves were extinct in the lower 48 states for more than half a century. Their restoration to the wildlands of Montana, Idaho, and Yellowstone National Park in the mid-1990s created virtual laboratories for wildlife biologists-and people like you and me-to observe the species in its natural element. We began to see almost immediately that wolves generate a ripple effect throughout the ecosystem for which many other species, some endangered themselves, benefit.

4 Making a living in the wild is hard. As a top predator, wolves make life easier by putting food on the ground for scavengers. Grizzly bears, bald eagles, gold eagles, ravens,

coyotes, mountain lions, magpies, wolverines, and beetles all enjoy feasting on wolf kills. Thanks to the wolves, the endangered grizzly bear is enjoying a renaissance and its numbers have taken a turn for the better in parts of the West. In Yellowstone, inpidual grizzly pears are taking advantage of a good thing: They?ve been seen following wolf packs, waiting for them to make a kill and then stealing the carcass before the

hard-working wolves have had a chance to take even a bite! Ninety-pound wolves are no match for one-thousand-pound grizzlies.

5 The dance of life and death between predator and prey makes many of us

uncomfortable, yet prey species are also benefiting from the return of the wolf. Unlike

human hunters, who target healthy adult animals, wolves cull the sick and elderly from elk, deer, moose, and bison herds, reducing the spread of disease and keeping the prey

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6 “It?s important to remember that predators and prey evolved in lockstep together over millions of years,” says Amaroq Weiss, BS, MS, JD, western director of species

conservation for Defenders of Wildlife. „They make each other work.” 7 “As an example of how a keystone predator like the wolf keeps a prey population healthier, we have only to look at what?s happening in Wisconsin,” says Weiss. “Chronic wasting disease (CWD) in deer is an enormous problem in the southern part of the state, where there are no wolves. However, in northern Wisconsin, to which wolves have returned in recent years, CWD in deer is unknown. While no studies have been completed to confirm this

relationship, the evidence on the ground is extremely compelling.

8 Plant life also gains where this high-ranking carnivore is around. Prior to wolves being reintroduced into Yellowstone, the ungulates (hooved mammals) had it easy. With no hunters or predators around, they could do as they pleased-and what pleased them was hanging out on river banks, browsing on the young willow and aspen. But with wolves back in the picture, the elk and moose have had to move around a lot more; as a result, the compromised vegetation is flourishing once again.

9 The beneficial impacts of this change are numerous. The willow and aspen can now mature, thereby creating habitat for migratory songbirds. The increased vegetation reduces erosion and cools the rivers and ponds, thus making them more hospitable to fish. Beavers are back building dams.

10 Environmentalism is all about relationships, and the trickle-down effects ... that wolves have on other species, and the ecosystem in general, is significant. It is easy to see why wolves are called an umbrella species: An entire web of life is protected by the existence of this top carnivore. Imagine what the ecological impact would be if wolves were allowed

to return to more of their historical homeland.

About the Introduction and Conclusion

1. The thesis statement for this essay is the last sentence of paragraph

a. 1.

b. 2.

c. 3.

d. There is no thesis statement.

Hint: Rereading the conclusion will help you answer this question.

2. The conclusion of this essay

a. summarizes the main ideas.

b. repeats the thesis statement in different words.

About the Organization

3. This essay is a cause/effect essay that discusses mainly

a. the causes of the wolves? return to certain areas of the United States.

b. effects of the return of wolves to certain areas of the United States.

c. both the causes and the effects.

4. This essay uses block organization to make three main

points about the return of wolves.

(1)--------------------

(2) _____________

(3) _____________ 5. Two paragraphs, when added together, use the chain pattern. These two paragraphs are

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92to.com,您的在线图书馆a. 5 and 6.

b. 8 and 9.

About the Support

6. The topic sentence for paragraph 4 is the

a. first sentence.

b. second sentence.

c. There is no topic sentence.

7. The topic sentence for paragraph 5 is the

a. first half of the first sentence (up to the word yet).

b. second half of the first sentence (after the word yet).

8. Which two paragraphs do not have topic sentences? a. 4 and 5

b. 6 and 7

c. 7 and 8

d. 8 and 9

e. 9 and 10

9. Paragraph 7 supports the point made in paragraph

a. 4.

b. 5.

About Coherence 10. What cause/effect signal word is used in the

a. last sentence of paragraph 3? _

b. last sentence of paragraph 8? _

c. second sentence of paragraph 9? _

d. third sentence of paragraph 9? ““-

11. What key noun appears in every paragraph except paragraphs 6 and 9?

12. What two synonyms in the first paragraph substitute for the key noun? ___ and ___

13. What transition signal in the topic sentence of paragraph 8 tells the reader that an additional main point will be discussed? 百度搜索“就爱阅读”,专业资料,生活学习,尽在就爱阅读网

92to.com,您的在线图书馆Sample 16:

Important Inventions in the Past

“Necessity is the mother of invention.” This quote is commonly used to explain how

another miraculous invention was discovered. Throughout history, many inventions have been created. The Industrial Revolution started in the late 1700s, and since then humankind has been developing at an exponential rate. Truly amazing and useful devices, such as the steam engine and telegraph, were invented. In the last 100 years, many inventions and innovations have been created that make society?s life better, and four devices stand out as the most useful: the jet airplane, the television, the laptop computer, and the cell phone.

The first most useful invention is the airplane, invented in 1903 by the Wright brothers. The airplane has transformed not only this society, but also the entire world. Airplanes make it

possible to travel long distances in a few hours, whereas before it took days or weeks to travel by horseback. In fact, a plane enables people to travel over high mountains and deep oceans with ease. It is as if the Atlantic and Pacific 61

Oceans were small rivers and the Himalaya and Rocky Mountains were tiny hills to jump over. In addition, with the invention of the plane, the world is smaller because a person can now effortlessly travel from one country to another to work, study, or take vacations.

The second most important invention in the last century is the computer, and specifically the

laptop computer with an internet connection. The computer was invented in the mid-1900s, but in the 1980s the personal computer transformed how people use it. Because a laptop computer is small, portable, and can store large amounts of data, it is useful for business and study. From email to ecommerce and from ebooks to downloading movies and games, the personal computer has transformed everyone?s life. Computer software programs make it

possible to keep track not only of business accounting and inventory, but also to buy and sell online. The Internet connects computers with a network of websites, and people can communicate on the computer with email, blogs, wikis, and even phone conversations.

This leads into the third most useful invention, the cell phone. Popularized in the 1990s, the cell phone keeps people safer and more connected. People can talk or send text messages to friends and family when they are far away, even in another country. Other examples of the cell phone?s

usefulness are that drivers can call to let someone know they will be delayed if they get stuck in traffic or call for help if their car breaks down. In addition, phones often have Internet browsers, so people can stay up-to-date with news and events. Also, with camera phones people can take and share pictures of friends and family easily.

The fourth most useful invention is the television. With many channels to choose from, and literally thousands of programs, the learning possibilities are endless. Although not all programs are educational, many programs are, and people can learn encyclopedic amounts of knowledge and information. News is available 24 hours a day, so when important events happen in another part of the world, people can find out easily. This is in contrast to the past when it took days, months, or even years to find out the news from faraway places. Also, comedy and dramatic shows let us enjoy the funny moments in life and deal more effectively

with the serious ones. 百度搜索“就爱阅读”,专业资料,生活学习,尽在就爱阅读网

92to.com,您的在线图书馆In conclusion, the airplane,

television, laptop computer and cell phone are all useful inventions. Although there are many inventions to choose from, these four have dramatically transformed the world. All these inventions are connecting people to other people, places, and ideas. It will be interesting to see what is invented in the future!

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92to.com,您的在线图书馆Sample 17: Comparison and

Contrast

Marital Exchanges!

1 In most cultures, the marriage of a man and a woman is accompanied by some kind of transfer of goods or services. These marital exchanges are used to create in-law relationships, compensate a family for the loss of one of its members, provide for the new couple?s support, or provide a daughter with an inheritance that helps attract a desirable husband.

64 2 Marital exchanges take numerous forms, including the North American custom of wedding showers and wedding gifts. In these, the presents given by relatives and friends supposedly help the newlyweds establish an independent household. We give things that are useful to the couple jointly, with food-preparation and other household utensils easily. the most common type of gift. Many couples even register at stores so that their relatives and friends will provide the items they want. 3 From a cross-cultural perspective, the most unusual feature of North American marital

exchange is that nothing is transferred between the relatives of the groom and bride: The couple treat the gifts as their private property. Like most of our other customs, this seems natural to us. Of course the gifts go to the couple--what else could happen to them?

4 Plenty else, as we shall see in a moment. For now, notice that the fact that the couple receives the gifts fits with several other features of Euro-American marriage.

5 First, in addition to creating new nuclear families, marriage is the bond through which new

independent households are started. So the husband and

wife “need their own stuff.” If, in contrast, the neWlyweds moved in with one of their relatives, they would not have as great a need for their own pots and pans, wine glasses, silver candlesticks, and other “stuff.”

6 Second, our marriage-gift customs fit with the value our culture places on the privacy of the marital relationship: It is a personal matter between the husband and wife, and their relatives should keep their noses out. If the in-laws get along and socialize, that?s great, but our marriages generally do

not create strong bonds between families of the bride and groom. (In fact, the two families often compete for the visits and attention of the couple and their offspring.) ... The fact that the in-laws do not exchange gifts with each other is a manifestation of the absence of a

necessary relation between them after the wedding. If, in contrast, the marriage created an alliance between the two sets of relatives, some kind of an exchange would probably occur between them to symbolize and cement their new relations. 7 Third, gifts are presented to the couple, not to the husband or wife as inpiduals, and are

considered to belong equally and jointly to both partners.

But there are marriage systems in which the property of the wife is separate from that of her husband; if porce should occur, there is no squabbling over who gets what and no need for prenuptials. Ipeoples, James, and Garrick Bailey. “Marriage, Family, and Residence.”

8 With this background in mind, what kinds of martial exchanges occur in other cultures? 9 Bridewealth Bridewealth is the widespread custom that requires a man and his relatives to transfer wealth to the relatives of his bride. It is easily the most common of all marital exchanges, found in more than half the world?s cultures. The term

bridewealth is well chosen because the goods transferred usually are among the most valuable symbols of wealth in the local culture. In sub-Saharan Africa, cattle and sometimes other livestock are the most common goods used for bridewealth. Peoples of the Pacific Islands and Southeast Asia usually give their bridewealth in pigs or shell money and ornaments.... 百度搜索“就爱阅读”,专业资料,生活学习,尽在就爱阅读网

92to.com,您的在线图书馆10 Brideservice As the term

implies, brideservice is the custom whereby a husband is

required to spend a period of time working for the family of his bride. A Yanomamo [a native tribe living in the rain forests of the Amazon] son-in-law is expected to live with his wife?s parents, hunting and gardening for them until they finally release control over their daughter. Among some !Kung [a tribe living in the Kalahari desert of Africa] bands, a man proves his ability as a provider by living with and hunting for his wife?s parents for three to ten years, after which the couple is free to camp elsewhere.

11 Brideservice is the second most common form of marital exchange; it is the usual

compensation given to the family of a bride in roughly one-eighth of the world?s cultures.

However, sometimes it occurs alongside other forms of marital exchange and occasionally is used to reduce the amount of bridewealth owed.

12 Dowry A marital exchange is called dowry when the family of a woman transfers a portion of their own wealth or other property to their daughter and her husband. The main thing to understand about dowry is that it is not simply the opposite of bridewealth; that is, it is not “groomwealth.” It is, rather, ordinarily the share of a woman?s inheritance that

she is allowed to take into her marriage for the use of her new family, although her parents are still alive. The

woman and her family do not acquire marital rights over her husband when they provide a dowry, as they would if dowry were the opposite of bridewealth; rather, the bride and her husband receive property when they marry, rather than when the bride?s parents die. By doing so, parents give their female children extra years of use of the property and also publicly demonstrate their wealth.

13 ... Dowry is a relatively rare form of marital exchange, occurring in only about 5 percent of the societies recorded by anthropology. Dowry today is common in parts of India, where it includes jewelry, household utensils, women?s

clothing, and money. Much of the dowry is presented to the bride on her wedding day, but her parents and maternal uncle often provide gifts periodically throughout the marriage. Dowry, then, is not always a one-time expense for a family but may represent a continual drain on their resources.

14 There are other forms of exchanges that occur at marriages, including some in which both sets of relatives

exchange gifts as a material symbol of the new basis of their relationship. And the

three forms discussed above are not mutually exclusive. For example, in most of traditional China, both bridewealth and dowry occurred at most marriages. The groom?s family would make a payment to the bride?s family and the bride?s family would purchase some furniture and other

household goods for their daughter to take with her when she moved into her husband?s household. For wealthier families dowry was usually displayed by being transported ostentatiously over the streets between the households of the bride and groom. Dowry thus became a Chinese “status

symbol.” Sometimes, if the bride?s family was substantially poorer than the groom?s, part of the bridewealth payment would be spent on purchasing goods for the woman?s dowry. This was legal and common until after the Communist Revolution in 1949, when the leaders outlawed both bridewealth and dowry, though both continue in some places to this day.

About the Organization

1. In which paragraphs do the authors describe the North

American form of marital exchange? a. 1-7

b. 2-7

c. 1-4

d.2-4 百度搜索“就爱阅读”,专业资料,生活学习,尽在就爱阅读网

92to.com,您的在线图书馆2. Excluding the North American

form of marital transfer, what other forms do the authors discuss? List them in order:

Why are they discussed in this particular order? In other words, what pattern did the authors use to organize this part of the reading?

3. Which two paragraphs contain the phrase in contrast?

Paragraphs __ and __

a. In the first paragraph containing the phrase in contrast, what is contrasted?